Over the course of this blog, a variety of sanitation facilities and improvement methods have been explored. Initially, the key types of sanitation facilities seen across the continent of Africa were analysed, looking at their strenghts and weaknesses. Facility types ranged from basic open-pit latrines to VIP double-pit latrines to more complex Aqua Privy's.
More innovative technologies were then discussed in posts regarding Peepoo, Ikotoilet and Sanergy. These posts brought to light how catering for basic human needs can be commoditised. It was then questioned whether or not it is immoral to do so or not.
A different approach was then taken in which sanitation improvement was brought about from the community itself. Proven especially successful in Zambia, community led total sanitation projects provide a long term solution to the sanitation crisis. They empower the people by giving them the skills and knowledge required to improve the sanitation within their community themselves. The personal connection with the sanitation facilities once built creates an incentive for communities to want to maintain this higher level of sanitation standards and potentially better it.
At the start of this blog I believed that developed nations should play a large role in funding and constructing improved sanitation facilities for those in developing areas of Africa. After conducting research and looking into the different projects and methods of improving sanitation facilities, I have come to the understanding that subsidising projects does not solve the main issues of sanitation. Adopting a community led total sanitation approach is much more sustainable for the future of communities it gives them the ability to improve the facilities themselves and build upon the knowledge. With this in mind, I do still believe that developed nations should play a passive role in supporting the improvement of sanitation in developing regions of nations within Africa but through provision of knowledge and volunteers to work with communities to help them to empower themselves.
Wednesday, February 6, 2019
CLTS: Key Findings
Through the brief investigation into two case studies of CLTS, one on the methods used in Nigeria and the other of those in Zambia, some key contributors to success were identified and are discussed accordingly.
Three of the common, successful themes of the two CLTS projects were the use of shock/disgust factor, the eradication of open defecation alongisde the construction of latrines, and the high engagement levels within the community.
When looking to encourage villagers to want to be more pro-active in the improvement of sanitation in their community, it was common to reveal to them just how unhygienic the practices used were. After being made aware of the presence of faecal matter in drinking water and food sources due to unsanitary disposal of excretion, members of the community were often much more willing to participate in the community based projects.
A technique which helped to allow the maintenance of open defecation free communities was to ensure that the community built facilities such as latrines as alternatives to open defecation. Encouraging the community to build the latrines gave them the skills required to build more in the future. It is also more likely that villagers will want to maintain latrines that they have built over ones subsidised as they have put their time and effort into the making of these facilities.
The high engagement levels within the community play a large role in ensuring the success of CLTS projects. Through high response to schemes, social norms are developed and an unspoken standard of sanitation is set within the community - often leading to subconscious competition in which people strive to have better sanitation than others.
Three of the common, successful themes of the two CLTS projects were the use of shock/disgust factor, the eradication of open defecation alongisde the construction of latrines, and the high engagement levels within the community.
When looking to encourage villagers to want to be more pro-active in the improvement of sanitation in their community, it was common to reveal to them just how unhygienic the practices used were. After being made aware of the presence of faecal matter in drinking water and food sources due to unsanitary disposal of excretion, members of the community were often much more willing to participate in the community based projects.
A technique which helped to allow the maintenance of open defecation free communities was to ensure that the community built facilities such as latrines as alternatives to open defecation. Encouraging the community to build the latrines gave them the skills required to build more in the future. It is also more likely that villagers will want to maintain latrines that they have built over ones subsidised as they have put their time and effort into the making of these facilities.
The high engagement levels within the community play a large role in ensuring the success of CLTS projects. Through high response to schemes, social norms are developed and an unspoken standard of sanitation is set within the community - often leading to subconscious competition in which people strive to have better sanitation than others.
Tuesday, February 5, 2019
CLTS: Case Study 2: Zambia
A 2007 CLTS pilot scheme in the Choma District of Zambia was visibly successful within the space of a few months. Saniation coverage increased from 23% to 88%, with open defecation free (ODF) villages accounting for 75% of all villages.
It was believed that the high levels of success for this CLTS scheme were linked to the great involvement of local leadership figures. Once these respected figures were able to internalise the impacts of open defecation, communities soon followed in behaviour. Similarly to the previous case study, a shock-factor was used by inducing disgust in communities by revealing how their actions of open defecation contaminate their food and water supplies. An additional technique, which may be what made the Choma District study so successful, was organised community visits to the most sanitary and unsanitary areas. This allowed for members of the community to analyse their position on the scale of hygiene and provided a comparison of the 'to-do's' and 'what-not-to-do's'.
The same approach of abolishing open defecation to create ODF communities, whilst encouraging community-built latrines, was used. At the same time, further sanitation strategies were enforced that were not specific to toilet use. Dish racks and refuse pits were helped to be constructed and the understanding of washing hands with soap before and after cooking and eating, and after contact with animals and children was also put forward. Whilst there was a generally fast uptake to this information across the scheme, it was found that in many cases the addition of non-toilet based information removed the spotlight from the seriousness of faecal-oral pathways. Confusing the main point of the behavioural changes being enforced.
Account based on Report for the Government of the Republic of Zambia, 2011.
It was believed that the high levels of success for this CLTS scheme were linked to the great involvement of local leadership figures. Once these respected figures were able to internalise the impacts of open defecation, communities soon followed in behaviour. Similarly to the previous case study, a shock-factor was used by inducing disgust in communities by revealing how their actions of open defecation contaminate their food and water supplies. An additional technique, which may be what made the Choma District study so successful, was organised community visits to the most sanitary and unsanitary areas. This allowed for members of the community to analyse their position on the scale of hygiene and provided a comparison of the 'to-do's' and 'what-not-to-do's'.
The same approach of abolishing open defecation to create ODF communities, whilst encouraging community-built latrines, was used. At the same time, further sanitation strategies were enforced that were not specific to toilet use. Dish racks and refuse pits were helped to be constructed and the understanding of washing hands with soap before and after cooking and eating, and after contact with animals and children was also put forward. Whilst there was a generally fast uptake to this information across the scheme, it was found that in many cases the addition of non-toilet based information removed the spotlight from the seriousness of faecal-oral pathways. Confusing the main point of the behavioural changes being enforced.
Account based on Report for the Government of the Republic of Zambia, 2011.
CLTS: Case Study 1: Nigeria and the LGA-wide Approach
Between 1990 and 2015, access to improved sanitation in Nigeria decreased from almost 40% to just under 30% (Abubakar, 2017). Simultaneously, open defecation increased by 1% to 25%. Nigeria has 36 states, divided into almost 800 local government areas (LGAs). This specific CLTS case study focuses on involving every player in the the LGA, from chairmen to religious leaders.
By involving all communities to engage in improved hygiene behaviour, it sparks competition between LGAs. Whilst learning the health benefits associated with improved sanitation, the inter-LGA peer pressure creates a standard which is continually raised for sanitation. Specific to Nigeria, after being kickstarted in Cross River State, the LGA-wide approach is now being used across the majority of the country.
As all aspects of the community are involved in this CLTS scheme, dates are arranged for which community meetings are held. During this time, Community Action Plans are devised to meet goals such as the eradication of open defecation or for building a certain number of latrines for the community. The construction of latrines at the same time as working to become open defecation free (ODF) means that communities are more likely to maintain ODF status once achieved as the latrines will be in place for use. Communities will have more incentive for maintaining the latrines as they have put their own time and effort into constructing them.
CLTS allow communities to take control of their communal behaviour and direct themselves towards total sanitation. This refers to the stage at which it is a social norm to carry out good sanitary behaviour and use and maintain toilets.
Since 2010, when the LGA-wide approach was started, ODF status has been achieved by more than 4,000 communities across Nigeria.
Two key strategies used among communities, to set social norms, were speed and disgust. By introducing the CLTS scheme to all LGAs at once, it reduced the time spent introducing it to communities one at a time. With regards to disgust, by educating communities on a large scale with the knowledge that by open defecating they are consuming their own faecal matter, it triggers widespread disgust in which all communities want to bring an end to open defecation.
Case study sourced from Community Led Total Sanitation - Case Study 1.
By involving all communities to engage in improved hygiene behaviour, it sparks competition between LGAs. Whilst learning the health benefits associated with improved sanitation, the inter-LGA peer pressure creates a standard which is continually raised for sanitation. Specific to Nigeria, after being kickstarted in Cross River State, the LGA-wide approach is now being used across the majority of the country.
As all aspects of the community are involved in this CLTS scheme, dates are arranged for which community meetings are held. During this time, Community Action Plans are devised to meet goals such as the eradication of open defecation or for building a certain number of latrines for the community. The construction of latrines at the same time as working to become open defecation free (ODF) means that communities are more likely to maintain ODF status once achieved as the latrines will be in place for use. Communities will have more incentive for maintaining the latrines as they have put their own time and effort into constructing them.
CLTS allow communities to take control of their communal behaviour and direct themselves towards total sanitation. This refers to the stage at which it is a social norm to carry out good sanitary behaviour and use and maintain toilets.
Since 2010, when the LGA-wide approach was started, ODF status has been achieved by more than 4,000 communities across Nigeria.
Two key strategies used among communities, to set social norms, were speed and disgust. By introducing the CLTS scheme to all LGAs at once, it reduced the time spent introducing it to communities one at a time. With regards to disgust, by educating communities on a large scale with the knowledge that by open defecating they are consuming their own faecal matter, it triggers widespread disgust in which all communities want to bring an end to open defecation.
Case study sourced from Community Led Total Sanitation - Case Study 1.
Community Led Total Sanitation
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| Community Discusion on Sanitation Options (Image Source) |
Thought to be the cause of its' success, CLTS recognises that simply subsidising and providing toilets does not necessarily mean the end to unhygienic habits, which have been practised freely for hundreds of years.
Due to the involvement of the local community in CLTS, schemes have been found to give villagers an increased sense of pride and dignity. Additionally, sanitation is not as much of a taboo subject in villages as much as it used to be, especially for women who would have been taught to be ashamed of their sanitary requirements.
There are few criticisms of CLTS, however, those that exist are largely focussed around the quantification and credibility of CLTS' success. In opposition to this, the results of CLTS schemes can be observed in the increase of open defecation free communities (Luthi et al., 2010).
Over the next two posts, differing case studies of CLTS implementation will be explored. The successes and failures of each example will be outlined.
Open Defecation and Flying Toilets
Open defecation is the action of excreting in open spaces, such as behind bushes or in open bodies of water. As mentioned previously, the choice to open defecate is as a result of having no safe or accessible alternative. It can also bring about safety issues for women if they have to travel long distances in order to do so, as they put themselves at greater risk of physical and sexual assault.
On average, 1g of human faeces alone contains 10,000,000 viruses, 1,000,000 bacteria and 1,000 parasite cysts (Unicef, 2018). When defecating in open spaces, the faecal matter has the ability to be transported into food and water for bathing, drinking and cooking, and children playing outside may come into contact with this matter. From those statistics, even a small amount of contact with faecal material puts people at risk of contracting diarrhoeal disease and other waterborne illnesses associated with faeces, such as worms and E.coli.
As open defecation is being reduced, another issue is on the rise. The increase in flying toilets refers to the the greater number of people defecating in bags and disposing of them at random - often throwing them out of windows, hence the name flying toilet. This is a large problem as the bags are highly likely to leak after landing, exposing the harmful bacteria within. Additionally, if in non-biodegradable bags, the faecal matter will be left to fester and may attract disease carrying insects and animals.
In some cases, there are toilet facilities available as an alternative to open defecation and flying toilets, however, these options are often in conditions no less desirable. As described by Kamal Kar, innovator of community led sanitation schemes, sometimes pit latrines may be in such bad condition with such poor maintenance that the smell alone is enough to make you want to turn to open defecation and other unsanitary methods of excretion (Kar, 2011).
In hindsight, is very understandable why so many turn to such methods of using the toilet, whether it be due to hygiene or lack of accessible facilities. Despite this, they are still behaviours which need to be eradicated through supply of sufficient toilet facilities, which are maintained to a high enough standard for people to be comfortable to use.
On average, 1g of human faeces alone contains 10,000,000 viruses, 1,000,000 bacteria and 1,000 parasite cysts (Unicef, 2018). When defecating in open spaces, the faecal matter has the ability to be transported into food and water for bathing, drinking and cooking, and children playing outside may come into contact with this matter. From those statistics, even a small amount of contact with faecal material puts people at risk of contracting diarrhoeal disease and other waterborne illnesses associated with faeces, such as worms and E.coli.
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| Consequence of open defecation and flying toilets (Image Source) |
As open defecation is being reduced, another issue is on the rise. The increase in flying toilets refers to the the greater number of people defecating in bags and disposing of them at random - often throwing them out of windows, hence the name flying toilet. This is a large problem as the bags are highly likely to leak after landing, exposing the harmful bacteria within. Additionally, if in non-biodegradable bags, the faecal matter will be left to fester and may attract disease carrying insects and animals.
In some cases, there are toilet facilities available as an alternative to open defecation and flying toilets, however, these options are often in conditions no less desirable. As described by Kamal Kar, innovator of community led sanitation schemes, sometimes pit latrines may be in such bad condition with such poor maintenance that the smell alone is enough to make you want to turn to open defecation and other unsanitary methods of excretion (Kar, 2011).
In hindsight, is very understandable why so many turn to such methods of using the toilet, whether it be due to hygiene or lack of accessible facilities. Despite this, they are still behaviours which need to be eradicated through supply of sufficient toilet facilities, which are maintained to a high enough standard for people to be comfortable to use.
Raising Awareness of Sanitation Issues
An important component to successful and maintained sanitation projects and facilities is a sound understanding of sanitation. It is almost benign to implement improved sanitation facilities in an area without providing the people with the tools and understanding of how to use and maintain such facilities.
There are many NGO's which aim to raise awareness of sanitation issues in developing nations and strive to help better these conditions. An example of an NGO who does this through providing knowledge to those in developing nations to allow them to make better sanitary decisions is Amref Health Africa. They have installed numerous latrines and bathrooms alongside local residents, in conjuction with setting up 'wash clubs' within schools, to provide children with a better understanding of hygiene, which they can teach to their family at home. Methods of working with the community whilst providing them with the basic needs for sanitation have been proven to reduce cases of diarrhoea by around 70% in schools.
An event to raise awareness of sanitation issues globally is World Toilet Day (WTD). Established in 2001 by the World Toilet Organisation, this day takes place on November 19th each year. The current overarching aim of the day is to ensure that everyone has safe access to a toilet by 2030 - coinciding with the Sustainable Development Goals (Goal 6). Organisations supporting and contributing funds to raising awareness on this day include, but are not limited to: the World Health Organisation, UN Water and unicef. In order to create more public engagement, each WTD has a designated theme. The most recent topic being nature, bringing attention to how nature can be incorporated with the disposal of waste, such as through composting faecal matter (as discussed in my posts regarding Peepoo and Sanergy).
One of the most famous NGOs for raising awareness about all water issues across Africa and the developing world is WaterAid - their slogan being 'Clean Water, Decent Toilets and Good Hygiene' (WaterAid, 2018). They are established in 18 nations across Africa, working with groups such as the Water Research Commission to provide low-cost technologies to provide and improve sanitation and hygiene.
There are many NGO's which aim to raise awareness of sanitation issues in developing nations and strive to help better these conditions. An example of an NGO who does this through providing knowledge to those in developing nations to allow them to make better sanitary decisions is Amref Health Africa. They have installed numerous latrines and bathrooms alongside local residents, in conjuction with setting up 'wash clubs' within schools, to provide children with a better understanding of hygiene, which they can teach to their family at home. Methods of working with the community whilst providing them with the basic needs for sanitation have been proven to reduce cases of diarrhoea by around 70% in schools.
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| World Toilet Day (Image Source) |
An event to raise awareness of sanitation issues globally is World Toilet Day (WTD). Established in 2001 by the World Toilet Organisation, this day takes place on November 19th each year. The current overarching aim of the day is to ensure that everyone has safe access to a toilet by 2030 - coinciding with the Sustainable Development Goals (Goal 6). Organisations supporting and contributing funds to raising awareness on this day include, but are not limited to: the World Health Organisation, UN Water and unicef. In order to create more public engagement, each WTD has a designated theme. The most recent topic being nature, bringing attention to how nature can be incorporated with the disposal of waste, such as through composting faecal matter (as discussed in my posts regarding Peepoo and Sanergy).
One of the most famous NGOs for raising awareness about all water issues across Africa and the developing world is WaterAid - their slogan being 'Clean Water, Decent Toilets and Good Hygiene' (WaterAid, 2018). They are established in 18 nations across Africa, working with groups such as the Water Research Commission to provide low-cost technologies to provide and improve sanitation and hygiene.
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